Table 2 Findings relating to environmental preference in landscapes

Nasar et al. (1983)

Survey in situ

√

O

–

–

Positive and neutral findings: “in agreement with Appleton (1975), the open view was judged as safer than the closed one, and this effect was more pronounced from an open observation point than from a protected one. However, in contrast to Appleton (1975), this effect did not carry over to environmental preference, and males (unlike females) liked the setting with less refuge.” (361)

Ruddell and Hammitt (1987)

Survey using stimuli

√

√

–

–

Positive findings: “the refuge symbolic (immediate) edge environment was the most preferred […] refuge symbolic (distant) was the second most preferred [… and t]he third most preferred […] was the refuge dominant […]. The least preferred […] was the prospect dominant […].” (255)

Kaplan and Herbert (1988)

Survey using stimuli

O

–

–

–

Neutral findings: “reflecting a relatively low preference for […] rural residences viewed in the context of otherwise more natural scenes” (382) as well as an “increased preference for more novel settings and decreased preference for seemingly familiar settings” (388)

Conrad (1993) (test 1)

Survey using stimuli

√

√

–

–

Positive findings: “there was no significant difference between trained and untrained observers” in recognising pleasant or unpleasant stimuli (141). “[T]he prospect [dominant] pictures were considered the most unpleasant followed by the refuge pictures. The balanced pictures were rated as most pleasant” (164)

Conrad (1993) (test 2)

Survey using stimuli

√

√

–

–

Positive findings: “landscape settings that are highly prospect are considered least pleasant, those that are highly refuge more pleasant, while prospect/refuge balanced settings are considered the most pleasant” (175)

Conrad (1993) (test 3)

Survey using stimuli

√

√

–

–

Positive findings: “eleven out of the twelve pictures created [by children] are clearly prospect/refuge balanced” (185)

Hagerhall (2000)

Survey using stimuli

√

√

√

–

Positive findings: “preference is related to whether or not the landscape is interesting to explore and to a feeling of security” (89)

Stamps (2008a) (test 1)^a

Survey using stimuli

–

X

X

–

Contrary findings: “the dominant source of comfort […] was venue. The view of the lake was judged as being most comfortable; the view of the glacier was judged as being least comfortable. […] Effects of refuge, represented as permeable regions in the foreground of the view, and direction of light, were nil” (155)

Stamps (2008a) (test 2)^a

Survey using stimuli  

O

X

–

–

Neutral and contrary findings: “natural scenes with no occluding edges were the least preferred, but built scenes with no occluding edges were the most preferred. […] For nature scenes, the scenes with the longest depth of view were preferred over the scenes with the closest depth of view […] while for the rooms […] the scene had a very small effect on preference” (159). Refuge was supported for natural backdrops only (not for built environments)

Stamps (2008b) (test 1)^b

Survey using stimuli

X

–

X

–

Contrary findings: “natural environments being judged as more comfortable than built environments […] The effect for light was tiny […] The effect for depth of view did not support the hypothesis that increased prospect causes increased comfort” (146)

Supportive √

Neutral O

Contrary X