A brand is a set of images, characteristics, or feelings that consumers remember when they think of a specific symbol, product, service, organisation or place (Kavaratzis and Ashworth 2005; Simeon 2006). In the creation of a brand, the main challenge is to determine the core of brand identity and its starting point, that is a brand essence (Florek and Janiszewska 2013). According to Kapferer (1999), “before knowing how we are perceived, we must know who we are”, and thus, he suggests that brand identity must be established before one considers what brand image is or ought to be. Kall (2001) explained that “the purpose of identity is to define the meaning, intention and reason for the brand; the identity needs to precede the image”. Besides, the branding process links directly to place management. It means that all activities undertaken by the place’s authorities are aiming at improving consumers’ perceptions about the area that is being branded. Urban planners or place managers use a range of marketing methods and techniques that create the brand identity of the place.
The image of the city can be considered as one of the most significant key concerns both for city identity as well as city branding. According to Boyer (2011), city image offers a sense of identity, well-being, and belonging. They formed the basis of memory systems; they attracted attention and made a place memorable, storable in mind. City image can be best interpreted at the intersection of city branding and city identity since the image is an indispensable part of both (Riza et al. 2012). Also, some studies (Bigné et al. 2001; Hussein et al. 2018; Shirvani Dastgerdi and De Luca 2019a) confirm a positive relationship between the city image and satisfaction of visitors.
City branding is conceptualised from different angles, and there is a variety of starting points and perspectives in its literature (Oguztimur and Akturan 2016; Shirvani Dastgerdi and De Luca 2018a). Although City branding is formed in the marketing literature (Berglund and Olsson 2010), it is an interdisciplinary mix of marketing, architecture, urban planning and tourism studies as a research field (Zenker and Martin 2011; Oguztimur and Akturan 2016). According to Kavaratzis and Ashworth (2005), City branding takes place within a communication system that intimately connects the overall city image and identity. Also, it may be considered innovation in the overlapping fields of marketing and communication (Popescu 2017a). Nevertheless, one of the objectives of city branding is to create uniqueness, which makes the city differentiable from others in the age of cities (Ashworth 2009, p. 9). It aims at attracting resources to the cities in a way that ensures the quality of place and wellbeing of the citizen (Björner 2013; Popescu 2017b). Baker (2007) has found that in the city branding process, the image and identity of a particular destination play an essential role in making a city uniqueness. Before the city branding process can begin, it is paramount to understand how the city sees itself and how it wants to be perceived externally. Accordingly, the identity of the city brand depends mainly on the identification of stakeholders and their accompaniment in the representation and formulation of a brand, which leads to an increased sense of ownership and sustainability of brand (Van Gelder 2011, pp 36–38; Shirvani Dastgerdi and De Luca 2019b). In general classification, key stakeholders of city branding include entrepreneur groups, investors, residents and visitors (García et al. 2012; Shirvani Dastgerdi and De Luca 2018b).
Kavaratzis (2004) introduces six essential subjects in the city branding process. These involve (1) what the city indubitably is; (2) what the city says it is; (3) what the city feels it is; (4) whom the city seeks to serve; (5) what the city is seen to be; and (6) what is encouraged and expected? On that basis, he proposes that branding can be understood within a three-level communication framework. The first level refers to physical and visible aspects from which a city can be understood. The second level consists of advertisement tools that a city adopts to market itself. The third level is people’s communication about a city through their voices and those of the media. Therefore, what should be noticed in branding of a city is that how characteristics of a place, i.e., architecture and history, economic and products, cultural activities, can be transformed into a justifiable identity which is acceptable to all people (Shirvani Dastgerdi and De Luca 2019c). Moreover, a key factor in the success or failure of city branding strategies is the identification of stakeholders and their accompaniment in the representation and formulation of a brand, which leads to an increased sense of ownership and sustainability of brand (Dinnie 2010).
Reputation reflects people’s prevailing attitude toward something—in this case, a city. Such a view enables cities to counteract competition and offer intuitive, relevant and customised value to target groups (Abimbola 2009). In the literature, it is discussed that reputation is a more stable indicator of performance than brand or image. In this regard, image only concerns more recent perceptions, whereas reputation is derived from multiple images over time (Fombrun and van Riel 1997). In other words: “reputation requires nurturing through time and image consistency” (Markwick and Fill 1997). Reputation is a crucial driver of people’s attitudes and behaviours towards a particular object (Sims 2002). City’s reputation can be seen as influential over decisions regarding investment, residential location, and tourism (Braun et al. 2018).